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This article is a discussion of neutrons in general. For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus, see free neutron.
{{Infobox Particle| bgcolour =| name = Neutron| image = | caption = The quark structure of the neutron.| num_types =| composition = one up, two down| family =
Fermion| generation =| interaction = [Gravity, Electromagnetic interaction,
Weak interaction, Strong interaction| antiparticle =
Antineutron 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics| symbol = n| mass = 1.674 927 29(28) × 10−27[kilogram939.565 560(81) MeV/
Speed of light²
1.008665
unified atomic mass unit| decay_time =| decay_particle =| electric_charge = 0
Coulomb| color_charge =| spin = ½| num_spin_states =-->In physics, the
neutron is a
subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass of 939.573
MeV/
speed of light² or 1.008 664 915 (78) u (1.6749 × 10−27 kg, slightly more than a
proton). Its
spin (physics) is ½. Its
antiparticle is called the
antineutron. The neutron, along with the
proton, is a nucleon.
The atomic nucleus of all atoms (except the lightest
isotope of hydrogen, which has only a single proton) consists of protons and neutrons. The number of neutrons determines the
isotope of an element. For example, the
carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, while the carbon-14 isotope has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different masses due to a different number of neutrons.
A neutron consists of two down
quarks and one up quark. Since it has three quarks, it is classified as a
baryon.
Neutron Stability and Beta Decay
of the neutron beta decay processOutside the nucleus,
free neutrons are unstable and have a mean lifetime of 885.7±0.8 seconds (about 15 minutes), decaying by emission of a negative
electron and
neutrino to become a proton: Particle Data Group Summary Data Table on Baryons\hbox{n}\to\hbox{p}+\hbox{e}^-+\overline{\nu}_{\mathrm{e-->. This decay mode, known as beta decay, can also transform the character of neutrons within unstable nuclei.
Inside of a bound nucleus, protons can also transform via beta decay into neutrons. In this case, the transformation may occur by emission of a positive electron (also called a positron or an antielectron) and neutrino (instead of an antineutrino): \hbox{p}\to\hbox{n}+\hbox{e}^{+}+{\nu}_{\mathrm{e-->. The transformation of a proton to a neutron inside of a nucleus is also possible through electron capture: \hbox{p}+\hbox{e}^{-}\to\hbox{n}+{\nu}_{\mathrm{e--> . Positron capture by neutrons in nuclei that contain an excess of neutrons would also be possible, but is hindered due to the fact positrons are repelled by the nucleus, and furthermore, quickly annihilation when they encounter negative electrons.
When bound inside of a nucleus, the instability of a single neutron to beta decay is balanced against the instability that would be acquired by the nucleus as a whole if an additional proton were to participate in repulsive interactions with the other protons that are already present in the nucleus. As such, although free neutrons are unstable, bound neutrons are not necessarily so. The same reasoning explains why protons, which are stable in empty space, may transform into neutrons when bound inside of a nucleus.
Beta decay and electron capture are types of
radioactive decay and are both governed by the
weak interaction.
Interactions
The neutron interacts through all four
fundamental interactions: the
electromagnetic interaction,
weak interaction, strong interaction and gravitational interactions.
Although the neutron has zero net charge, it may interact electromagnetically in two ways: first, the neutron has a magnetic moment of the same order as the
proton (see neutron magnetic moment); second, it is composed of electrically charged quarks. Thus, the electromagnetic interaction is primarily important to the neutron in deep inelastic scattering and in magnetism interactions.
The neutron experiences the weak interaction through beta decay into a proton,
electron and neutrino. It experiences the gravitational force as does any energetic body; however, gravity is so weak that it may be neglected in
particle physics experiments.
The most important force to neutrons is the strong interaction. This interaction is responsible for the binding of the neutron's three
quarks into a single particle. The residual strong force is responsible for the binding of neutrons and protons together into atomic nucleus. This nuclear force plays the leading role when neutrons pass through matter. Unlike charged particles or photons, the neutron cannot lose energy by ionization atoms. Rather, the neutron goes on its way unchecked until it makes a head-on collision with an atomic nucleus. For this reason, neutron radiation is extremely penetrating.
Detection
The common means of detecting a electric charge
elementary particle by looking for a track of ionization (such as in a
cloud chamber) does not work for neutrons directly. Neutrons that elastically scatter off atoms can create an ionization track that is detectable, but the experiments are not as simple to carry out; other means for detecting neutrons, consisting of allowing them to interact with atomic nuclei, are more commonly used.
A common method for detecting neutrons involves converting the energy released from such reactions into electrical signals. The nuclides 3He, 6Li, 10B, 233U, 235U, 237Np and 239Pu are useful for this purpose. A good discussion on neutron detection is found in chapter 14 of the book
Radiation Detection and Measurement by Glenn F. Knoll (John Wiley & Sons, 1979).
Uses
The neutron plays an important role in many nuclear reactions. For example, neutron capture often results in
neutron activation, inducing radioactivity. In particular, knowledge of neutrons and their behavior has been important in the development of nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.
neutron temperature neutron radiation is commonly employed in
neutron scattering facilities, where the radiation is used in a similar way one uses X-rays for the analysis of condensed matter. Neutrons are complementary to the latter in terms of atomic contrasts by different scattering
Cross section (physics)s; sensitivity to magnetism; energy range for inelastic neutron spectroscopy; and deep penetration into matter.
The development of "neutron lenses" based on total internal reflection within hollow glass capillary tubes or by reflection from dimpled aluminum plates has driven ongoing research into neutron microscopy and neutron/gamma ray tomography. Nature
357, 390-391 (04 June 1992); doi:10.1038/357390a0 Physorg.com, "New Way of 'Seeing': A 'Neutron Microscope'" NASA.gov: "NASA Develops a Nugget to Search for Life in Space"
One use of neutron emitters is the detection of light nuclei, particularly the hydrogen found in
water molecules. When a fast neutron collides with a light nucleus, it loses a large fraction of its energy. By measuring the rate at which slow neutrons return to the probe after reflecting off of hydrogen nuclei, a
neutron probe may determine the water content in soil.
Sources
Due to the fact that free neutrons are unstable, they can be obtained only from nuclear disintegrations, nuclear reactions, and high-energy reactions (such as in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions). Free neutron beams are obtained from neutron sources by neutron transport. For access to intense neutron sources, researchers must go to specialist facilities, such as the ISIS neutron source in the United Kingdom, which is currently the world's most intense pulsed neutron and muon source.
Neutrons' lack of total electric charge prevents engineers or experimentalists from being able to steer or accelerate them. Charged particles can be accelerated, decelerated, or deflected by
electricity or
magnetic fields. However, these methods have no effect on neutrons except for a small effect of a magnetic field because of the neutron's
magnetic moment.
Discovery
In
1930 Walther Bothe and H. Becker in
Germany found that if the very energetic alpha particles emitted from
polonium fell on certain light elements, specifically
beryllium,
boron, or lithium, an unusually penetrating radiation was produced. At first this radiation was thought to be gamma radiation although it was more penetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details of experimental results were very difficult to interpret on this basis. The next important contribution was reported in 1932 by Irène Joliot-Curie and
Frédéric Joliot in Paris. They showed that if this unknown radiation fell on paraffin or any other hydrogen-containing compound it ejected protons of very high energy. This was not in itself inconsistent with the assumed gamma ray nature of the new radiation, but detailed quantitative analysis of the data became increasingly difficult to reconcile with such a hypothesis. Finally (later in 1932) the physicist James Chadwick in
England performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable. He suggested that in fact the new radiation consisted of uncharged particles of approximately the mass of the
proton, and he performed a series of experiments verifying his suggestion. Such uncharged particles were eventually called
neutrons, apparently from the Latin root for
neutral and the
Greek language ending
-on (by imitation of
electron and
proton).
Anti-Neutron
The antineutron is the
antiparticle of the neutron. It was discovered by Bruce Cork in the year
1956, a year after the
antiproton was discovered.
CPT-symmetry puts strong constraints on the relative properties of particles and antiparticles and, therefore, is open to stringent tests. The fractional difference in the masses of the neutron and antineutron is (9±5)×10−5. Since the difference is only about 2 standard deviations away from zero, this does not give any convincing evidence of CPT-violation. Particle Data Group's Review of Particle Physics 2006
Current developments
Electric dipole moment
An experiment at the Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) has attempted to measure an electric dipole, or separation of charges, within the neutron, and is consistent with an
electric dipole moment of zero. These results are important in developing theories that go beyond the
Standard Model. See FRONTIERS article, and the experiment's web page.
Tetraneutrons
The existence of stable clusters of four neutrons, or tetraneutrons, has been hypothesised by a team led by Francisco-Miguel Marqués at the CNRS Laboratory for Nuclear Physics based on observations of the disintegration of beryllium-14 nuclei. This is particularly interesting, because current theory suggests that these clusters should not be stable.
Protection
Exposure to neutrons can be hazardous, since the interaction of neutrons with molecules in the body can cause disruption to
molecules and atoms, and can also cause reactions which give rise to other forms of radiation. The normal expectations of radiation protection apply: avoid exposure, stay as far from the source as possible, and keep exposure time to the minimum. Some thought must however be given to how to protect oneselves from such exposure. For other types of radiation, e.g. alpha particles, Beta rays, or gamma rays, material of a high atomic number and with high density makes for good shielding; frequently lead is used. However, this approach will not work with neutrons, since the absorption of neutrons does not increase straightforwardly with atomic number as it does with alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Instead one needs to look at the particular interactions neutrons have with matter (see the section on detection above). For example, hydrogen rich materials are often used since ordinary hydrogen scatters neutrons, so this often means simple concrete blocks, or paraffin loaded plastic blocks may be the best protection.
See also
Fields concerning neutrons
Types of neutrons
Objects containing neutrons
Neutron sources
Processes involving neutrons
References
This article is a discussion of neutrons in general. For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus, see free neutron.
{{Infobox Particle| bgcolour =| name = Neutron| image = | caption = The quark structure of the neutron.| num_types =| composition = one up, two down| family = Fermion| generation =| interaction = [Gravity, Electromagnetic interaction,
Weak interaction, Strong interaction| antiparticle = Antineutron 1935 Nobel Prize in Physics| symbol = n| mass = 1.674 927 29(28) × 10−27[kilogram939.565 560(81) MeV/
Speed of light²
1.008665 unified atomic mass unit| decay_time =| decay_particle =| electric_charge = 0 Coulomb| color_charge =| spin = ½| num_spin_states =-->In physics, the
neutron is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass of 939.573
MeV/
speed of light² or 1.008 664 915 (78) u (1.6749 × 10−27 kg, slightly more than a proton). Its spin (physics) is ½. Its
antiparticle is called the
antineutron. The neutron, along with the
proton, is a
nucleon.
The
atomic nucleus of all
atoms (except the lightest isotope of
hydrogen, which has only a single proton) consists of protons and neutrons. The number of neutrons determines the isotope of an element. For example, the
carbon-12 isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, while the
carbon-14 isotope has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different masses due to a different number of neutrons.
A neutron consists of two down
quarks and one up
quark. Since it has three quarks, it is classified as a baryon.
Neutron Stability and Beta Decay
of the neutron beta decay processOutside the nucleus, free neutrons are unstable and have a
mean lifetime of 885.7±0.8 seconds (about 15 minutes), decaying by emission of a negative electron and neutrino to become a proton: Particle Data Group Summary Data Table on Baryons\hbox{n}\to\hbox{p}+\hbox{e}^-+\overline{\nu}_{\mathrm{e-->. This decay mode, known as beta decay, can also transform the character of neutrons within unstable nuclei.
Inside of a bound nucleus, protons can also transform via beta decay into neutrons. In this case, the transformation may occur by emission of a positive electron (also called a positron or an antielectron) and neutrino (instead of an antineutrino): \hbox{p}\to\hbox{n}+\hbox{e}^{+}+{\nu}_{\mathrm{e-->. The transformation of a proton to a neutron inside of a nucleus is also possible through
electron capture: \hbox{p}+\hbox{e}^{-}\to\hbox{n}+{\nu}_{\mathrm{e--> . Positron capture by neutrons in nuclei that contain an excess of neutrons would also be possible, but is hindered due to the fact positrons are repelled by the nucleus, and furthermore, quickly annihilation when they encounter negative electrons.
When bound inside of a nucleus, the instability of a single neutron to beta decay is balanced against the instability that would be acquired by the nucleus as a whole if an additional proton were to participate in repulsive interactions with the other protons that are already present in the nucleus. As such, although free neutrons are unstable, bound neutrons are not necessarily so. The same reasoning explains why protons, which are stable in empty space, may transform into neutrons when bound inside of a nucleus.
Beta decay and electron capture are types of
radioactive decay and are both governed by the weak interaction.
Interactions
The neutron interacts through all four
fundamental interactions: the electromagnetic interaction, weak interaction, strong interaction and
gravitational interactions.
Although the neutron has zero net charge, it may interact electromagnetically in two ways: first, the neutron has a magnetic moment of the same order as the
proton (see neutron magnetic moment); second, it is composed of electrically charged
quarks. Thus, the electromagnetic interaction is primarily important to the neutron in deep inelastic scattering and in magnetism interactions.
The neutron experiences the weak interaction through beta decay into a proton,
electron and
neutrino. It experiences the gravitational force as does any energetic body; however, gravity is so weak that it may be neglected in
particle physics experiments.
The most important force to neutrons is the strong interaction. This interaction is responsible for the binding of the neutron's three
quarks into a single particle. The residual strong force is responsible for the binding of neutrons and protons together into
atomic nucleus. This nuclear force plays the leading role when neutrons pass through matter. Unlike charged particles or photons, the neutron cannot lose energy by
ionization atoms. Rather, the neutron goes on its way unchecked until it makes a head-on collision with an atomic nucleus. For this reason,
neutron radiation is extremely penetrating.
Detection
The common means of detecting a
electric charge elementary particle by looking for a track of ionization (such as in a cloud chamber) does not work for neutrons directly. Neutrons that elastically scatter off atoms can create an ionization track that is detectable, but the experiments are not as simple to carry out; other means for detecting neutrons, consisting of allowing them to interact with atomic nuclei, are more commonly used.
A common method for detecting neutrons involves converting the energy released from such reactions into electrical signals. The nuclides 3He, 6Li, 10B, 233U, 235U, 237Np and 239Pu are useful for this purpose. A good discussion on neutron detection is found in chapter 14 of the book
Radiation Detection and Measurement by Glenn F. Knoll (John Wiley & Sons, 1979).
Uses
The neutron plays an important role in many nuclear reactions. For example, neutron capture often results in
neutron activation, inducing
radioactivity. In particular, knowledge of neutrons and their behavior has been important in the development of nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons.
neutron temperature neutron radiation is commonly employed in
neutron scattering facilities, where the radiation is used in a similar way one uses
X-rays for the analysis of
condensed matter. Neutrons are complementary to the latter in terms of atomic contrasts by different scattering Cross section (physics)s; sensitivity to magnetism; energy range for inelastic neutron spectroscopy; and deep penetration into matter.
The development of "neutron lenses" based on total internal reflection within hollow glass capillary tubes or by reflection from dimpled aluminum plates has driven ongoing research into neutron microscopy and neutron/gamma ray tomography. Nature
357, 390-391 (04 June 1992); doi:10.1038/357390a0 Physorg.com, "New Way of 'Seeing': A 'Neutron Microscope'" NASA.gov: "NASA Develops a Nugget to Search for Life in Space"
One use of neutron emitters is the detection of light nuclei, particularly the hydrogen found in
water molecules. When a fast neutron collides with a light nucleus, it loses a large fraction of its energy. By measuring the rate at which slow neutrons return to the probe after reflecting off of hydrogen nuclei, a
neutron probe may determine the water content in soil.
Sources
Due to the fact that free neutrons are unstable, they can be obtained only from nuclear disintegrations, nuclear reactions, and high-energy reactions (such as in cosmic radiation showers or accelerator collisions). Free neutron beams are obtained from
neutron sources by
neutron transport. For access to intense neutron sources, researchers must go to specialist facilities, such as the ISIS neutron source in the United Kingdom, which is currently the world's most intense pulsed neutron and
muon source.
Neutrons' lack of total electric charge prevents engineers or experimentalists from being able to steer or accelerate them. Charged particles can be accelerated, decelerated, or deflected by
electricity or
magnetic fields. However, these methods have no effect on neutrons except for a small effect of a magnetic field because of the neutron's magnetic moment.
Discovery
In 1930 Walther Bothe and H. Becker in
Germany found that if the very energetic alpha particles emitted from
polonium fell on certain light elements, specifically beryllium,
boron, or lithium, an unusually penetrating radiation was produced. At first this radiation was thought to be gamma radiation although it was more penetrating than any gamma rays known, and the details of experimental results were very difficult to interpret on this basis. The next important contribution was reported in 1932 by Irène Joliot-Curie and
Frédéric Joliot in Paris. They showed that if this unknown radiation fell on paraffin or any other hydrogen-containing compound it ejected protons of very high energy. This was not in itself inconsistent with the assumed gamma ray nature of the new radiation, but detailed quantitative analysis of the data became increasingly difficult to reconcile with such a hypothesis. Finally (later in 1932) the physicist
James Chadwick in
England performed a series of experiments showing that the gamma ray hypothesis was untenable. He suggested that in fact the new radiation consisted of uncharged particles of approximately the mass of the
proton, and he performed a series of experiments verifying his suggestion. Such uncharged particles were eventually called
neutrons, apparently from the
Latin root for
neutral and the
Greek language ending
-on (by imitation of
electron and
proton).
Anti-Neutron
The antineutron is the antiparticle of the neutron. It was discovered by
Bruce Cork in the year
1956, a year after the antiproton was discovered.
CPT-symmetry puts strong constraints on the relative properties of particles and antiparticles and, therefore, is open to stringent tests. The fractional difference in the masses of the neutron and antineutron is (9±5)×10−5. Since the difference is only about 2 standard deviations away from zero, this does not give any convincing evidence of CPT-violation. Particle Data Group's Review of Particle Physics 2006
Current developments
Electric dipole moment
An experiment at the
Institut Laue-Langevin (ILL) has attempted to measure an electric dipole, or separation of charges, within the neutron, and is consistent with an
electric dipole moment of zero. These results are important in developing theories that go beyond the
Standard Model. See FRONTIERS article, and the experiment's web page.
Tetraneutrons
The existence of stable clusters of four neutrons, or tetraneutrons, has been hypothesised by a team led by Francisco-Miguel Marqués at the CNRS Laboratory for Nuclear Physics based on observations of the disintegration of beryllium-14 nuclei. This is particularly interesting, because current theory suggests that these clusters should not be stable.
Protection
Exposure to neutrons can be hazardous, since the interaction of neutrons with molecules in the body can cause disruption to
molecules and atoms, and can also cause reactions which give rise to other forms of radiation. The normal expectations of radiation protection apply: avoid exposure, stay as far from the source as possible, and keep exposure time to the minimum. Some thought must however be given to how to protect oneselves from such exposure. For other types of radiation, e.g.
alpha particles, Beta rays, or gamma rays, material of a high atomic number and with high density makes for good shielding; frequently lead is used. However, this approach will not work with neutrons, since the absorption of neutrons does not increase straightforwardly with atomic number as it does with alpha, beta, and gamma radiation. Instead one needs to look at the particular interactions neutrons have with matter (see the section on detection above). For example, hydrogen rich materials are often used since ordinary hydrogen scatters neutrons, so this often means simple concrete blocks, or paraffin loaded plastic blocks may be the best protection.
See also
Fields concerning neutrons
Types of neutrons
Objects containing neutrons
- atomic nucleus (and as a result, all ordinary matter with the exception of hydrogen)
- dineutron
- tetraneutron
- neutronium
- neutron star
Neutron sources
Processes involving neutrons
References
Neutron - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
In physics, the neutron is a subatomic particle with no net electric charge and a mass slightly larger than that of a proton. The nuclei of all atoms consist of protons and ...
Neutron star - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A neutron star is formed from the collapsed remnant of a massive star; i.e. a Type II, Type Ib or Type Ic supernova. Models predict that neutron stars consist mostly of neutrons ...
Neutron
Simple explanation of neutron in the framework of the history of the Universe ... Physical Environment > Neutron Earlier 15 Billion Years ago Later
Definition: neutron from Online Medical Dictionary
The Online Medical Dictionary is a searchable dictionary of definitions from medicine, science and technology.
ISIS Pulsed Neutron & Muon Source | Neutron Sites
2007 ISIS Pulsed Neutron & Muon Source. ISIS welcomes re-use of material on this website provided suitable ...
ISIS Pulsed Neutron & Muon Source | About ISIS
Welcome to ISIS..... the world's leading pulsed neutron and muon source located at the UK Rutherford Appleton Laboratory near Oxford. ISIS supports an international community ...
The Neutron Electric Dipole Moment Experiment
Why is the universe made up of matter and not anti-matter? The answer to this most fundamental of questions is not yet understood: at the time of the Big Bang, matter and ...
John Caunt Scientific- Neutron Section, Neutron Instrumentation ...
At John Caunt Scientific Ltd we specialise in nuclear radiation detection & measurement, site-wide radiation monitoring network systems, as well as environmental beta / gamma ...
Neutron LLC
Build your brand from the inside out. ... 2007 Neutron LLC, Some rights reserved
Neutrón (Mexican Wrestler)
Neutrón. Real Name: Unknown Identity/Class: Normal human Occupation: Luchador (Wrestler) Affiliations: a "dwarf sidekick" (name unknown to me) Enemies: Dr.Caronte and his army of ...
